Iranian Journal of Health and Environment

Environmental impact assessment of brackish water desalination: a case study of Taft city, Yazd province

Afshin Ebrahimi

Background and Objective: The implementation of desalination projects is not without challenges and can have adverse environmental consequences on the environment. The present study was conducted with the aim of assessing the environmental impacts of the desalination of brackish groundwater in the villages of Taft city.
Materials and Methods: Based on field visits to the study area and the prevailing environmental conditions in the region, as well as considering the specific conditions of implementing desalination facilities, questionnaire checklists were used to examine the spatial sensitivity of the project. The Wooten and Rao matrix was used to analyze the relevant environmental activities and consequences.
Results: The results showed that the project overall has a predominance of positive effects, which is confirmed by obtaining a final score of +29. The highest positive scores belong to social and economic dimensions such as income parameters (+27), welfare (+24), and employment (+24). However, the results emphasize the focus of negative impacts on the physical environment, with the most severe impacts being noise pollution (-9) and groundwater resources (-16).
Conclusion: In the present study, the positive impacts outweigh the negative impacts; therefore, implementing this project is deemed appropriate based on the Wooten and Rao matrix criteria, and it does not have any major adverse effects on the region's environment. In addition, the transfer of wastewater to this location has no impact on erosion, compaction, and soil structure degradation, as well as the quality of the aquifers in the region.

Hospital readmissions of respiratory patients associated with PM2.5: cumulative effects and attributable risk analysis in Sanandaj using remote sensing and monitoring data

Omid Aboubakri

Background and Objective: Hospital readmission among respiratory patients is an important indicator for evaluating the quality of healthcare services and for assessing the burden of chronic diseases. This study aimed to examine the cumulative effects of PM_2.5 and to estimate the attributable risk of respiratory-related readmissions in Sanandaj.
Materials and Methods: In this study, datasets from the Meteorological Organization, hospital readmission records of respiratory patients, along with integrated data from environmental monitoring stations and satellite remote sensing, were utilized. The association between PM_2.5 and readmissions was assessed using a semi-parametric regression model with nonlinear functions to control for known and unknown confounders. Based on the model outputs, cumulative effects up to 21 days post-exposure and the attributable risk were estimated, stratified by age and sex.
Results: High concentrations of PM_2.5 were significantly associated with cumulative increases in readmissions, particularly among men and individuals under 65 years old. In younger patients (<65 years), there were delayed effects, while in older adults the highest risk occurred during the initial days following exposure. The attributable risk analysis indicated that approximately 3500 readmissions during the study period were attributed to PM_2.5 exposure, with the largest proportion observed within the 0–15 μg/m³ concentration range.
Conclusion: This study demonstrated that PM_2.5 contributes substantially to respiratory-related hospital readmissions, with effects that were both cumulative and delayed. These findings highlight the need to revise air quality standards, design preventive interventions tailored to age and sex groups, and strengthen early-warning and monitoring systems to reduce the burden of respiratory diseases and healthcare costs.

Enhancing the stability and fluidization of calcium oxide sorbent in solar calcium looping process

Maryam Tahmasebpoor

Background and Objective: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), as the main greenhouse gas, plays a critical role in global warming. One of the effective methods for CO₂ capture is the solar-driven calcium looping process. The stable performance and good fluidity of CaO-based sorbents are crucial for the efficiency and durability of this process. This study aims to investigate and enhance the stability and fluidization characteristics of CaO sorbents to improve the performance of solar calcium looping process.
Materials and Methods: To enhance the stability of CaO sorbents, chemical modification with phosphoric and acetic acids was applied. To improve the sorbent's, fluidity, silica particles were added. The performance of modified sorbents was evaluated over 19 cycles for CO₂ capture and regeneration to assess the quantitative and qualitative effects of these treatments on stability and fluidization.
Results: Regarding stability, sorbents modified with acetic acid showed better performance than those modified with phosphoric acid. In contrast, phosphoric acid modification was more effective in improving fluidization behavior. Limestone modified with 10% acetic acid retained a CO₂uptake of 0.3 g CO₂/g sorbent after 19 cycles, corresponding to a 57% increase compared to the unmodified limestone. Additionally, at a superficial gas velocity of 5 cm/s, bed expansion of the phosphoric acid-modified sample increased by 27% compared to the raw limestone. By adding 5% silica particles to the acetic acid-modified sample, bed expansion increased by 32%.
Conclusion: Acid modification combined with silica particles addition provides an effective strategy to enhance the performance of CaO sorbents in solar calcium looping processes.

Effect of traditional production on the heavy metal concentration in dairy products compared to raw milk and its health risk assessment

Rozhan Feizi

Background and Objective: Since the presence of heavy metals in milk and dairy products is a health concern, this study aimed to evaluate the concentrations of lead, cadmium, copper and zinc in raw milk and traditional dairy products, and to conduct a related risk assessment.
Materials and Methods: 30 samples of milk and dairy products including yoghurt, cheese, and doogh were collected from ten traditional dairy production store in Khuzestan province. The samples were digested in the laboratory using nitric acid method digestion, and the heavy metal concentration was measured using Metrohm 797. Hazard Quotient (HQ) and Hazard Index (HI) were calculated for non-carcinogenic risk and Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) was calculated for carcinogenic risk assessment using Monte Carlo simulation.
Results: The mean concentration of lead, cadmium, zinc and copper in the dairy were 0668, 0069, 0952 and 8756 mg/kg, respectively. The total heavy metal concentrations in yoghurt, doogh and cheese were 134.08, 24.19 and 4.17 percent higher than in raw milk, respectively. The HI from dairy product consumption was 52.82E-2. The EDI for lead and cadmium in dairy products were in the range of 10^-4 and10^-8, respectively.
Conclusion: Although common attitude toward better quality of traditional dairy products, the traditional process increases the concentration of some heavy metals in comparison with in raw milk. Monitoring of heavy metals in traditional dairy products and defining a control strategy is recommended.

Analysis of heatwave characteristics and temperature indices in Karbala city during the years 2009 to 2024

Mostafa Hadei

Background and Objective: Karbala, as one of the world’s largest religious destinations hosting millions of pilgrims annually, is highly vulnerable to extreme heat events. Understanding temperature dynamics and heat-wave characteristics is essential for anticipating climatic risks and protecting public health during mass gatherings. This study aimed to analyze long-term trends in average, minimum, and maximum temperatures and to assess the frequency, duration, and intensity of heat waves in Karbala from 2009 to 2024.
Materials and Methods: Daily meteorological data—including maximum, minimum, and mean temperatures—were obtained from the GSOD database. Heat-wave events were identified using the Excess Heat Factor (EHF) index, which incorporates both climatic baselines and population acclimatization. Five indicators (HWN, HWF, HWD, HWM, HWA) were calculated to characterize heat-wave behavior. Linear regression was applied to evaluate temporal trends in temperature and heat-wave metrics.
Results: The findings revealed significant increases in annual mean, minimum, and maximum temperatures over the study period. Heat-wave activity intensified, with the number of events and total heat-wave days rising from fewer than 20 days in early years to more than 40 days in several recent years. The longest heat wave extended up to 31 days, and both the intensity and magnitude of heat waves showed an upward trend. These patterns indicate substantial escalation in heat stress conditions consistent with regional warming in the Middle East.
Conclusion: Karbala has experienced clear and concerning increases in temperature and heat-wave severity between 2009 and 2024. The intensification of heat-wave frequency, duration, and intensity underscores growing climatic risks—particularly for pilgrims and vulnerable populations during mass gatherings. Strengthening early warning systems, improving cooling infrastructure, increasing green spaces, and implementing heat-health preparedness measures are essential for enhancing resilience and reducing heat-related health impacts in this climate-sensitive city.

Evaluating the efficacy of ozonation and membrane filtration as alternatives to chlorination for disinfecting drinking water from the Behbahan Maroon river source

Mahdi Elyasi Kojabad

Background and Objective: Growing concerns over disinfection by-products (DBPs) resulting from conventional chlorination necessitate the exploration of alternative approaches in water treatment. This study investigates the efficiency of a combined system comprising ozonation and ceramic membrane filtration for drinking water treatment.
Materials and Methods: A ceramic membrane was fabricated using the slip-casting method, characterized, and evaluated for performance. Ozonation efficiency was assessed by injecting 1 g of ozone into a 2.5 L sample (concentration of 0.02 g/L) for 3 minutes. Water quality was monitored by measuring turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), major anions and cations, as well as microbiological indicators, including coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli.
Results: Morphological examination confirmed the porous structure of the membrane. The flux test results showed that the membrane flux decreased from 475 Lmh to 313 Lmh, with 96% recovery through backwashing. The membrane reduced turbidity from 1.72 NTU to 0.5 NTU, representing a 71% removal efficiency compared to the pre-filtration sample. Ozonation had no effect on water turbidity but achieved complete removal of coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli. In contrast, membrane filtration achieved 66% removal of these bacteria.
Conclusion: Membrane filtration removes the majority of contaminants when employed as a complementary method to either ozonation or chlorination, allowing for the subsequent use of a mild disinfectant to eliminate remaining trace microbial content. The combined application of low-concentration ozonation and chlorination prevents the formation of DBPs, representing a step toward providing safer and healthier drinking water.

Design, development, and evaluation of an intelligent rodent control system using automated poison injection

Mojtaba Khatibi

Background and Objective: Due to the lack of the desirable methods of rodent control, the construction of an intelligent rat trap that injects environmentally friendly poison was considered as an effective solution.
Materials and Methods: Based on studies of the length, weight and behavioral characteristics of various types of mice, the initial design of the device was carried out. Using walnut and hazelnut oils, the mouse was guided toward the death tunnel, and the desired chemical was automatically injected into the mouse's chest. The device was first tested with laboratory mice and then with wild samples, and design flaws were examined and resolved at each stage. Data analysis was performed using the chi-square test.
Results: In the death section, two substances—sodium chloride and EDTA—were tested at a concentration of 1 Molar with volumes of 1 mL and 2 mL, respectively, at distances of 2, 4, 6, and 8 centimeters from the rat muzzle. EDTA with a volume of 2 mL achieved a 97% mortality rate (confidence interval 88-99 with a 5% margin of error) at 8 centimeters from the rat muzzle and with an exposure time of 20 seconds. Regarding the comparison between walnut and hazelnut flavors, walnut flavor received the highest attraction score of 93% (confidence interval: 84-98), making it the best parameter in the design.
Conclusion: Due to its ease of use, independence from users’ skill, and environmentally friendly procedure, this method of controlling rat populations is considered an effective, sustainable, and intelligent solution.

The comparative analysis of wastewater treatment efficiency in nickel–chrome and zinc electroplating industries for pollutant removal

Fazlollah Changani

Background and Objective: The rapid expansion of industrial and urban activities in recent decades has led to the increased use of electroplating processes and the generation of wastewater containing heavy metals and toxic compounds such as cyanide and phenol. These pollutants can pose significant risks to human health and the environment. This study aims to conduct a quantitative and qualitative assessment of wastewater from electroplating industries and to evaluate its compliance with discharge standards, thereby providing a basis for improving wastewater management and mitigating environmental impacts.
Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted at two nickel–chromium and zinc electroplating units equipped with on-site treatment systems in Tehran Province. Following an assessment of the electroplating processes and treatment units, grab sampling was performed twice on both raw wastewater and effluent samples. In each sampling event, six samples were collected, resulting in a total of 12 samples. Physical and chemical characteristics were measured, and the performance of the treatment systems in removing pollutants was evaluated.
Results: The analytical results indicated that in the effluent from unit 1, the concentrations of COD and nickel, and in the effluent from unit 2, the concentration of zinc, exceeded the established permissible limits. The treatment system in the nickel–chromium electroplating unit exhibited the highest removal efficiency for chromium (100%) as well as for zinc, phosphate, and nickel (94–99%), whereas the removal efficiencies for COD and TSS were estimated at 45% and 69%, respectively. In the zinc electroplating unit, the removal efficiencies for nickel, zinc, COD, and phosphate were approximately 98–99%, while the lowest removal efficiencies were observed for cyanide (50%) and copper (33%).
Conclusion: The findings of this study indicated that the concentrations of several parameters in the treated effluents exceeded the permissible limits established by Department of Environment (DoE) of Iran standards, highlighting the urgent need to upgrade treatment processes and improving wastewater management.

Assessment of extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields from high-voltage power lines in a public park in Qazvin, Iran

Azam Janati Esfahani

Background and Objective: This study investigated the spatial distribution of electric and magnetic field intensities around 63 kV high-voltage power lines located in a public park in Qazvin, Iran. The aim was to evaluate citizens’ exposure to extremely low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic fields through experimental measurement and numerical modeling.
Materials and Methods: This descriptive-analytical research measured electric and magnetic field strengths around 63 kV pylons in four directions and various distances at typical human height (170 cm) across all seasons. Measurements were conducted using a calibrated Holaday field meter during peak power consumption periods. Three-dimensional field propagation was modeled using the COMSOL Multiphysics software and the finite element method (FEM). The obtained data were compared to Iranian national exposure standards and analyzed statistically using R software and the generalized estimating equation (GEE) model.
Results: The intensities of both electric and magnetic fields were highest near the pylons and decreased with increasing distance. The maximum electric field values occurred in spring and summer, while magnetic field maxima appeared in winter. Temperature and humidity exhibited significant effects on the field intensities (p< 0.05). Modeled values were higher than measured ones. Nevertheless, all measured values were below the permissible limits defined by Iranian national standards.
Conclusion: The exposure level of visitors to electromagnetic fields within the studied park was found to be within safe limits and below the national health thresholds. Considering seasonal variations and environmental influences, periodic monitoring throughout the year is recommended. Utilization of natural elements such as vegetation can effectively reduce local field exposure.

Systematic review of the level of aflatoxin M1 contamination in various types of milk supplied in Iran

Mohammad Amin Heidarzadi

Background and Objective: Aflatoxins are found in various types of food and animal feed. Food contamination with aflatoxin is of particular importance today. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of aflatoxin M1 in various types of milk supplied in Iran through a systematic review.
Materils and Methods: In this review, national and international databases including SID, MagIran, Embase, ScienceDirect, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science (ISI) were extracted without time limit until December 2025. The total number of articles searched was 2250, of which 90 were cited in this study and included 11,632 milk samples.
Results: The results showed that the average concentration of aflatoxin M1 in all types of milk supplied in Iran was 68.47 ng/L, which was lower than the permissible limit of the Iranian standard (100 ng/L); but it exceeded the European Union standard (50 ng/L). The findings of this study showed that 17.78% (16 out of 90 articles) exceeded the values determined by the Iranian standard, and 22.32% (29 out of 90 articles) exceeded the standards determined by the European Union. Therefore, in 59.9% of the studies, the level of contamination with aflatoxin M1 was lower than the European standard. The strict standards set by the relevant authorities are the main reason for the low aflatoxin content in milk supplied in Iran.
Conclusion: Considering the average concentration of aflatoxin M1 in fermented milk in Iran, it does not pose a significant risk to consumers; however, monitoring and screening of livestock feed would help further reduce aflatoxin M1 in milk.

Health and environmental consequences of stray dogs and control strategies: a systematic review

Gholam Ali Haghighat

Background and Objective: Stray dogs are a serious problem in urban and rural environments that, in addition to posing a risk of bites and transmitting rabies, have significant health, environmental, and even economic consequences for society. The aim of this study was to investigate the consequences of stray dogs and the factors affecting their population and control programs.
Materials and Methods: This review study was conducted by determining keywords and defining a search protocol to find articles related to the study objective. Using the search protocol, Scopus and Google Scholar databases were searched. The articles were screened in three stages by the authors, and finally 50 articles were selected for inclusion in this study.
Results: The results showed that bacterial and parasitic diseases transmitted from stray dogs to humans were a serious concern in the studies. Rabies and injuries caused by dog bites were also considered in researches. The impact of stray dogs on other animals and owner dogs, as well as the impact of the presence of these animals in indirectly transmitting the disease to humans, were important studied aspects in researches. In addition, in this study, the factors affecting the population of stray dogs and their control strategies were categorized and discussed.
Conclusion: Stray dogs have consequences beyond the prevalence of rabies in society. There are also several factors that affect the population of these animals and the success of their control methods, which should be introduced to citizens and urban management decision-makers and considered.

Policy brief of health strategies to reduce pregnant mothers' exposure to microplastics

Mohsen Hesami Arani

Background and Objective: In the present era, the use of plastic appliances and requirements as the avoidable part of human life has caused the microplastics as modern pollutants to various human organs. Accordingly, this policy brief has been conducted with the aim of identifying the effective environmental health strategies for reducing the exposure to microplastics in pregnant mothers by group discussion method.
Materials and Methods: the experts in this study were 8 faculty members of the university faculty of environmental health, women, and fertility; first they reviewed scientific documents related to the study in valid databases, and analyzed the effective strategies for strategic management.
Results: the existing scientific evidence suggests that increasing the level of knowledge and attitude of pregnant mothers to reduce exposure to microplastics can lead to significant reduction in plastic waste generation and most studies focus on changing individual behavior, psychological interventions and macropolicy, although these interventions are confronted with several challenges. Accordingly, the policy implications of the document include 12 types of strategy in both administrative and educational sectors, along with 26 relevant recommendations for the purpose.
Conclusion: according to the results of the study, combination of educational and executive strategies can be effective in reducing the exposure of pregnant mothers.