Iranian Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine

Ancient civilizations, proportionately to the extent and impact of their culture, used some methods in the field of personal sanitation to prevent infections and general diseases. Studying the indictors of personal sanitation, methods and the aims, in broad lands of Sasanians, would lead us to sanitary treatments of people in this empire. Considering the issue that personal sanitation in Sasanian period (651-224 A.D) was more influenced by the teachings of Zoroastrianism, the study of the Zoroastrian perspective is of the greatest importance in this regard. Personal sanitation in that period included washing with water, soil and gomiz, using special places for washing called Pādyāw, using napkins, using perfume and combing hair. There were also strict, detailed rules that made personal sanitation difficult and intolerable. Thus, some meges made efforts to change these rules. This paper aims to study indicators of personal sanitation and their applications for more than 400 years during Sasanian period with descriptive analytical method, on the base of literary evidence.

The Zebrafish is a preeminent model organism that, with its most prominent features, has expanded the boundaries of science in many disciplines. Characteristics of this small freshwater fish, with the help of biologists, showed that it has a highly comparable genetic with mammals such as mice and rats. For example, the emergence of new and efficient methods for duplicating and editing the genome has helped to increase the growth of its use in various fields of science, including toxicology, drug discovery, transplant biology, disease modeling, and even aquaculture. Continued maturation and adoption of the Zebrafish model system require the improvement of methods and approaches for the cultivation and management of these fishes in controlled reservoirs, so that, ultimately, research on this fish is more reusable, cost-effective and in a framework for ethics in research. Knowledge and technology transfer from laboratory science, medicine, and aquaculture is a necessary part of this development, which should be in line with ethical standards in science. In this paper, we would consider the ethical and technical principles of working with Zebrafish as a species model in studies of medical sciences.
 

Smallpox was a dangerous disease that was considered one of the leading causes of mortality and disability in Iran up to Pahlavi II period. Therefore, combatting this disease was necessary. At the beginning of the second development plan (1955) and by founding Combatting Smallpox Service, the efforts for eradicating smallpox became more organized. This organization could overcome a lot of the different geographical and human obstacles and vaccinate a lot of the people every year. So, it could almost controlled smallpox up to the end of this period. In this paper, we investigated combatting smallpox from 1948 to 1967 and addressed its obstacles, approaches and achievements. Accordingly, we answered research questions  through content analysis and deductive reasoning. The major sources used were reports released by the state, particularly the reports of Planning Organization and Ministry of Health, as well as old medical magazines.

Nowadays, social networks play a remarkable role in human societies. Instagram, as one of the most influential platforms, along with other functions, has become a place for the marketing and advertising of economic undertakings. Advertisements on Instagram are different from other forms of advertising. The market-driven nature of this network will create many legal challenges in the relationship between professions and consumers. Goods (such as medicines and herbal medicines) and health services (such as medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy) are related to the health of consumers. It is evident that any negligence on the part of the profession can cause serious harm to consumer’s physical and mental health. This article assesses the evolution of the relationship between the professional and the consumers. It discusses the ethics of Instagram marketing and health problem, along with reviewing the legal protection of consumer’s health in the -related goods and services using an analytical-descriptive method. The results of this paper show that violating consumer rights on Instagram can lead to four types of liability (criminal, legal, disciplinary, and ethical) for the offenders. In this way, the support of the legislator and the responsible authorities is essential for increasing the quality of this protection.
 

In the Qajar era, European countries deployed many doctors accompanied by their military, religious, and political groups to Iran consistent with their political goals and interests. Meanwhile, the role of France was more and more significant than the rest of European countries. This essay aims to introduce French physicians, to express the performance of French physicians in Iran during the Qajar period, to introduce the activities and extent of the influence of French physicians on the medicine of the Qajar period, and to examine the elements that advance the presence of French physicians in Iran during the Qajar era. This research was conducted using library resources and descriptive-analytical method. The findings indicate that the influence of French medicine on the developments of modern medicine in Iran was very significant, to the extent that the modern medicine was based on French physicians in Iran. Overall, the French effects on medicine in Iran can be found in two forms: establishment of the hospital and clinics and the formation of a health council. In addition, French physicians took important steps in the field of medical education such as ophthalmology, surgery, microbiology, vaccination, writing medical books, and quarantine to prevent communicable diseases. Therefore, French physicians, unlike other European countries, which only improved their health status, also evolved in the history of Iranian medicine. Finally it must be said the Qajar community was well-received by French medicine and physicians; Because both the Qajar court and the community were in need of medical care and the French government needed a comprehensive medical presence in Iran to achieve its political and economic goals.
 

Writing treatises and books on ethics and morality is one of the most important topics in medicine history. Teaching and learning medical knowledge and skills was a common one in the golden age of science in Islam, too. The scholars of that period considered the ethical points of view as an important fact in their medical profession. The present article reports the behavior and ethics of physicians based on the review on the first book in this field, "Adab al-Tabib". This book, which can be called the Encyclopedia of Medical Ethics, represents standpoints of the prominent Islamic scholar, Ishaq bin Ali Al-Ruhawi. In this paper, it was intended to summarize the main points of professional behavior and ethics among physicians. Due to the wide-ranging and comprehensive nature of the book, only a few pertinent topics were reviewed. Those topics include the necessity and concept of politeness; the behavior and commitment of physicians towards themselves, patients and society as well as the behavior of nurses, attendees and tips on how to train and examine medical and pharmacy students. Al-Ruhawi in this book, declares that the first necessity of medicine is the true faith and belief in God and the doctors are the guardians of the body and soul. Commitment to medical education, nurses and pharmacists’ role in the management process, physicians’ communication skills suggesting of learning other sciences such as philosophy and more important point, strong relationship of body and soul, are the strengths of Adab-al-Tabib that Ruhawi intended to improve quality of medical services by reviewing them.
 

Smallpox is one of the most dangerous and contagious diseases that have killed many people throughout history. Attempts to prevent and treat the disease have always been a concern of physicians and some government officials. In the Qajar era, attempts were made for a modern-style inoculation, but it failed because of its incompatibility with the culture and beliefs of the community and the fundamentals of traditional medicine. In the first Pahlavi period, despite the adoption of laws on free, public and compulsory inoculation, there were no desired results due to some problems. The present study seeks to study the obstacles and problems of inoculation in Iran during the first Pahlavi era and the government's actions with a focus on Isfahan city and its functions using descriptive-analytical method. It also seeks to answer the question of what caused failure of the government to cope with smallpox despite considerable efforts? The results of this study show that although the government's measures to enact free and compulsory public inoculation laws, employing inoculation doctors and threatening and penalizing offenders reduced the number of smallpox patients in Isfahan, however, there were problems such as the unawareness of the people and their refusal to inoculate, the lack of cooperation of several villages’ headman with the inoculation officers, the violation and negligence of some inoculation, and the lack of sufficient funds and health facilities. These problems made smallpox disease still prevalent and caused children’s mortality.

Perhaps, the most appropriate translation proposed for euthanasia is the painless and piteous killing. According to the existence of effective components in committing a crime, it is considered as complicity in murder and the consent of victim does not affect the nature of criminal act and the criminal liability of person depriving the life. One of issues related to this killing which is disagreed is the edict that person who is obliged to save life related to passive type of euthanasia does not perform this killing and there must be difference among its different types and conditions. The primary reasoning of the edicts indicate that duties whether difficulty or not must be done but, according to the rule of negation of difficulty and hardship, obligation to these edicts in cases of hardship is cancelled. The articles of this rule include obligatory duties to disuse. However, from the view of jurists, it is not general that euthanasia corresponds to some juridical sub-principles indicating the permission of suicide in some conditions, although this is criticized and rejected. Two rules of hardship and beneficence are those believed to help prove the hypothesis by attaching to the rule of negation of hardship and difficulty. But, it is clear that it is not so. In feasibility study of this rule with the rule of no harm, they are proved by the murder illegality and the mentioned rules cannot govern the primary reasoning of depriving the life Therefore, euthanasia is not allowed at all.

The phrase "Academic mobbing" can be described as character assassination or psychological harassment against a colleague. According to many published reports, individuals in any workplace, including the academic environment, may be targets of coworkers' antisocial behaviors such as accusation, humiliation, emotional abuse, and general offences. In addition to personal negative outcomes including decreased job satisfaction, increased occupational stress, and higher risk for anxiety and depression; academic mobbing can lead to decreased efficacy of the organization to reach its targets. Job dissatisfaction leads to decrease effort of faculties in performing educational and scientific activities that has indirect consequences on community. The direct effect of dissatisfaction of faculties would be decreased quality and quantity of educational services to students. Since the first steps to systematically deal with any social issue, including academic mobbing is understanding the nature and characteristics of the situation, the current review tends to introduce and establish the characteristics of academic mobbing as well as the role of the authorities in preventing or resolving the problem.

In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, Iran was involved with epidemics such as plague and cholera, affecting the population and economy of the country. The spread of these diseases, on the one hand, was the result of the government's inability to organize health centers and, on the other hand, the inability to prevent these diseases by the quarantine of the borders. The southern borders of the country were one of the most important ways of transmitting diseases. Iran was exposed to these diseases through the Persian Gulf. It was possible that the diseases with origin in Iran transmitted from this waterway to the neighboring countries as well. These diseases were transmitted in two ways. The merchant ships’ entering Iran's ports from India was one way, especially the cities of Calcutta and Mumbai. The other was via the Hajj caravans (pilgrimage) rout. The opening of the Suez Canal and subsequently increase in voyage of steamships, lead to expansion of trade in the southern ports of the country, and frequent and more convenient transportation of the Hajjis (pilgrims). Thus, this also increased the spread of the diseases in that era.

Despite the peak of medical knowledge in the Abbasid period, the presence of famous medical families in the Abbasid court, translation and writing of medical works, attention to nutrition and health in the court of the Abbasid caliphs, the expectation of long life and quality was created for the Abbasid caliphs. However, all these possibilities were not used much by the caliphs, and if they had not been killed in the war, they would have died of disease, even at a young or middle age. This research is performed using library sources and descriptive-analytical method. According to the findings of this study, the urgent need of the Abbasid caliphs for "treatment" had caused physicians to be present in the court of the caliphs with great benefit of wealth and even power. Revelry, the unjustified lifestyle in having fun and spending a lot of time in the harem leads to the suffering from of some Abbasid caliphs in their age Young or untimely due to some incurable or incurable diseases that caused their premature death. Finally, among the 37 Abbasid caliphs, 30 of them were killed in internal or external wars and conflicts. The remaining number died of disease, despite the establishment of a coherent system of health and treatment and having all the medical facilities of their time. Therefore, despite the provision of medical facilities for the Abbasid caliphs, the wrong lifestyle and full of excesses in having fun has caused them to fall ill and eventually die.

This study seeks to identify one of the pioneers of traditional clinical medicine named Abdullah Azdi and his medical dictionary. This research is an analytical study. The focus of the search was on two keywords, Abdullah Azdi and Kitab al-Ma'ma, but the scope of the search included all appropriate terms such as: medicine, Bu Ali Sina, traditional medicine, medical dictionary, ethics, and medical law. Data were collected and analyzed using comprehensive library software (version one), Islamic History Library, Islamic Iran History and reputable national and international centers. The main purpose of the forthcoming research, on the one hand, is to identify and introduce points about life and beliefs, as well as Abdullah Azdi's specialized knowledge in the field of medicine, and on the other hand, to introduce his book, which is in fact a dictionary called "Kitab al-Ma'a". The researches of this research show that Abdullah Azdi was one of the students of Ibn Sina and the companion of Abu Rihan al-Biruni. In addition of being expert in clinical medicine, he was an ethical and professional physician and in every part of his book, he observes the Shari'a. The use of specialized medical terms indicates that he was surrounded by medical knowledge.

Spanish flu was one of the harshest historical pandemics in the northeastern Iran, which killed many local people. Its first outbreak in Mashhad dates back to August 3 and 4, 1918. This disease continued until 1920 in successive waves. The death toll of this disease in Mashhad (with a population of 100,000 people at the time) was possibly as high as 3,500. Moreover, this disease caused outbreak of other diseases. In fact, it killed five percent of this city’s population and resulted in huge deaths in this city. This paper takes the importance of Mashhad’s medical history into consideration and at the same time investigates the outstanding role of Spanish influenza, World War I, and the presence of Russians who were the main cause of this outbreak in Mashhad, and the reaction of Iranian and foreign physicians to this disease and the medicine they prescribed, as well as the significant role of British in fake Persian Famine, opium addiction, and food poverty.

With the onset of the COVID-19 pandemics, a huge flood of people rushed to medical centers, which severely affected working conditions of the medical staff. In this article, we are going to evaluate the reaction of health care workers to the rise of traffic, social gatherings, non-observance of mask use protocols and physical distance which lead to an increasing number of infected persons and death rate. Here, we address the impact of community’s indifference on medical staff which seems to decrease the quality of medical staff practice gradually

The purpose of this study was to perform a narrative review and documentary research in the history of community medicine specialty formation and the needs for its existence in health systems. We searched and reviewed related literature and documents in English and or Farsi (printed or online). Data was extracted and findings were categorized, summarized, and reported. About a century ago community medicine specialty was formed to respond to major health challenges of that time such as neglecting the effects of social determinants on populations’ health and total separation between clinical care and public health. Community medicine professionals are able to address many of the current health problems such as inequalities in health, fair financing problems, increasing demands and costs and disease-based health system approaches. They can be the leading advocates to emphasize the importance of social determinants in health of populations. They can promote communications with influencing institutions outside the health system to improve the health of the communities. This discipline can pave the way for the health systems to tackle the most important contemporary health challenges. Lack of attention to this discipline may hinder the achievement of sustainable development goals and health promotion of the communities. More support from officials and utilizing the skills of community medicine specialists can help health systems not only to better respond to the health needs of the society but also to facilitate the achievement of their main goals.

The issue of disease in the context of history has always been one of the concerns of the wise man. In accordance with the intellectual system of each period of history, various diseases have been identified and prevention and treatment strategies have been presented. The identification of some diseases, including the flu, goes back to a new era. The use of the word "flu" first occurred in the Qajar era. Because it is new and unknown, the group of physicians, as the person in charge of health matters, needed to know about this disease and define and explain it. The purpose of this study as a historical-review study, in the first step is to study the history of the prevalence of this disease in Iran and the process of recognizing it through the available information sources in the Qajar era society. The medical approach of the press (publications) and the identification and introduction of " RESALE DAR MARAZ_E ANFLUENZA: GRIP" as the first treatise written about this disease, has been done at this stage. The second step of the present study is to investigate how the Spanish flu entered Iran and assesses its consequences in the affected areas.

One of the most important and influential events in the interaction between Islamic civilization and the West was the Crusades, which lasted for nearly two centuries and extended from Europe to the Levant and Egypt. The main reasons for these wars, apparently, were the religious zeal of the Christians to seize Jerusalem from the Muslims and, in fact, the territorial expansion and influx of the surplus population of Europe to the east. The present study aims to explore the role of the Crusades in the transfer of medicine to Europe. The present research uses a descriptive-analytical method and library resources to explain the process of transferring Islamic and Eastern medical science to the world, affected by religious wars. Referring to texts, honesty and trustworthiness, citation of used texts, avoidance of bias in inference from texts or analyzes have been observed. The results of the research show that during the Crusades, Europeans, observing the scientific progress of Muslims, decided to translate the works of Islamic physicians and transfer them to Europe. This led to the advancement of medical knowledge and the development of health in Europe's Renaissance. Thus, he most important consequence of the Crusades was facilitation of the transfer of the cultural and civilizational foundations of the Islamic world, including the reserves of Islamic and Persian medicine to Europe

The present study seeks to find an answer to this question, “how effective was the religious and moral advice on environmental health situation of cities under the territory of Al-Buwayh dynasty”? Findings indicate that in the first half of the Al-Buwayh era, following the increase in population and expansion of some cities, the need for health measures in various areas was felt, of which is considered a responsibility of environmental health authorities nowadays. In addition to the instructions and recommendations being embodied in some verses of Quran and hadiths being the basis of health laws, a number of rulers of this dynasty, like Azd al-Dawlah intervened in the health affairs of cities in various fields such as providing drinking water, constructing of medical and service centers, and appointing Sheriffs (Darougheh). A part of the mentioned actions was involved with the community health in the field of food hygiene, roads and public places, water hygiene as well as sewage disposal. In the present study, first, narrative, historical, medical and geographical books were indexed by using descriptive-analytical method and relying on library resources; second, the data in the most important areas related to environmental health was classified; and then, a conclusion was reached.