Iranian Journal of

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Background and Objectives: Phenolic compounds are presence in many industrial wastewaters, and have been classified as priority pollutants. Application of several conventional processes due to high cost and low efficiency has been limited. Thus, new methods such as enzymatic polymerization seem to be preferable and effective processes with high potential to substitute the conventional processes. This study was carried out to evaluate Raphanus sativus extract as a peroxides enzyme source for polymerization and removal of phenol from synthetic wastewater in the presence of hydrogen peroxide.
Materials and Methods: The study was performed in batch reactor at room temperature. Peroxidase enzyme was extracted from Raphanus sativus plant roots . Primary concentration of phenol in wastewater was 100 mgl-1. The concentration of phenol and enzymatic activity was been measuredby photometric assay.
Results: The results show that Raphanus sativus extract is a suitable source of peroxidase enzyme. Mean enzymatic activities in this extract was 3.107 Uml-1. Also, our results showed that elevation of extract volume lead to high efficiency of phenol removal, in which the increase in the extract volume from 5 to 50 ml, resulted in the efficiency of processes increased from 7.6 to 98.2 %. Also, sequencing addition of H2O2 and extract has improved the effects. The phenol removal efficiency of the reaction time after 3 h with single and three stages adding of reactants was 84.2 and 93.1% , respectively.
Conclusion:Enzymatic polymerization can be used as an appropriate process for the removal of phenolic compounds from wastewaters. To meet the optimized condition in process, the ratios of phenol/ enzyme and H2O2/ phenol and sequences of the adding of reactants should be considered.

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Backgrounds and Objectives: Phenol and phenolic compounds are widely used in industry and daily liFe, and are of high interest due to stability in the environment, dissolution ability in water and health problems. In this regard, phenol removal from water is of high importance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficiency of photodegradation process for removal of phenol from aqueous system by use of Fe-doped TiO2 nanoparticles prepared by sol-gel method.
Materials and Methods: Phenol concentrations of 5, 10, 50 and 100 mg/L were prepared and exposed to UV and Fe-doped TiO2, separately and simultaneously. Also the effect of initial phenol concentration, Fe-doped TiO2 loading and pH were studied. Various doses of photocatalist investigated for Fe- doped TiO2 were 0.25, 0.5 and 1 g/L. pH was studied at three ranges, acidic (pH=3), neutral (pH=7) and alkaline (pH=11).
Results: Maximum degradation was obtained at acidic pH, 0.5 g/L of Fe-doped TiO2 for all of phenol concentrations. With increasing initial concentration of phenol, photocatalytic degradation decreased. In comparison with Fe-doped TiO2/UV process, efficiency of UV radiation alone was low in phenol degradation (% 64.5 at 100 mg/l of phenol concentration). Also the amount of phenol adsorbed on the Fe-doped TiO2 was negligible at dark conditions.
Conclusion: Results of this study showed that Fe(III)- doped TiO2 nanoparticles had an important effect on photocatalytic degradation of high initial phenol concentration when Fe(III)-doped TiO2/ UV process applied.

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Background and Objectives: Effluent generated in several industries contains phenolic compounds, which have been classified as priority pollutants. Due to its toxicity, the conventional systems are inefficient for treatment of phenol-Laden wastewater. Biological processes using pure microbial culture, including fungi and yeast, are environmentally friendly techniques capable of complete destruction of contaminants.
Materials and Methods: This work was aimed at investigating the efficiency of a fungi specie in the decomposition of high concentrations of phenol ranging from 500 to 20000 mg/L. Several batch reactors were operated at different phenol concentration. The concentration of residual phenol was monitored over time using colorimetric method 4-aminoantipyrine. The removal efficiency was calculated considering the initial phenol concentration.
Results: Experimental data indicated that the phenol could efficiently degrade using the selected culture. The developed granules could completely degrade phenol at concentrations up to 20000 mg/L.
Conclusion: It can be concluded from the experimental data that the biodegradation using the Fungi granules is a very efficient and thus promising technique for treatment of wastewaters containing phenolic compounds.

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MicrosoftInternetExplorer4 Background and Objectives: Phenols in trace quantities are usually present in the treated effluent of many wastewater-treatment plants. Phenol compounds even at low concentration can cause toxicity, health and significant taste and odor problem in drinking waters. This research focuses on understanding the sorption process and developing a cost-effective technology for the treatment of water contaminated with phenolic compounds, which are discharged into the aquatic environment from a variety of sources. In order to remove phenolic compounds from water, a new natural sorbent, rice husk ash, was developed.
Materials and Methods: Removal of phenol, 2-chlorophenol and 4-chlorophenol were characterized by spectrophotometric technique at wavelengths of 269.5, 274 and 280 nm, respectively, under batch equilibrium conditions and via changing the parameters of contact time, initial pH, and initial concentration of adsorbates and dosages of sorbent. Finally, the results were analyzed by the kinetic and isotherm models.
Results: in this study, the equilibrium time was found to be 240 min for full equilibration of adsorbates. Removal percent of 2-chlorophenol was lower than two others. The maximum removal of phenol, 2-CP and 4-CP was observed at an initial pH of 5. The percentage removal of these phenolic compounds increased with increasing adsorbent dose and decreasing initial concentration. In kinetics studies, correlation coefficient and ARE factor showed that the sorption of phenol (R2=0.9999), 2-chlorophenol (R₂=0.9992) and 4-chlorophenol (R₂=1) fitted by pseudo second order model. Isotherm studies also revealed that, Langmuirmodel for phenol (R₂=0.9499), Freundlich model for 2-chlorophenol (R₂=0.9659) and 4-chlorophenol (R₂=0.9542) were the best choices to describe the sorption behaviors.
Conclusion: Sorption process is highly dependent on the pH and it affects adsorbent surface characteristics, the degree of ionization and removal efficiency. At high pH hydroxide ions (OH-) compete for adsorption sites with phenol molecules. The sorption was done rapidly and a plateau  was reached indicating the sorption sites occuupied till  they were saturated. Since the increasing sorbent dose would improve sorption site, its increasing enhances phenolic compounds removal.

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MicrosoftInternetExplorer4 Background and Objectives: Phenol is one of the aromatic compounds, which due to its high toxicity and its presence in the industrial effluents, should be removed and prevented it, to the receiving water resources. The natural biological plant has been accepted as one of the most feasible, eco-friendly and cost-effective options for the treatment of pollutants such as Phenol. The aim of this study is efficiency evaluation of the anaerobic stabilization pond performance in removing phenol and other organic compounds from Kermanshah oil refinery wastewater.
Materials and Methods: The method of study was experimental and analytical, a laboratory scale anaerobic stabilization pond, with dimensions of 1 × 1 × 0/2 m, using fiberglass sheet with a thickness of 6 mm was designed and built up. In this study The hydraulic retention time and hydraulic loading rate were expected 2 days and 95 liters per day respectively. Organic loading rate for anaerobic pond was 100 g/m³. After starting, seeding and biological stability, samples were taken. Initial phenol concentration was added about of 100 mg/l to pilot input, then the parameters such as NH₃, PO₄ and Phenol were measured by Varian spectrophotometer model UV-120-02 in the wavelength 425, 690, 500 nm respectively.  TCOD, SCOD, TBOD, SBOD, pH and ORP were measured according to the standard methods of water and wastewater.
Results: The results showed that the removal efficiency of NH₃, PO₄, phenol, TCOD, SCOD, TBOD, SBOD in the anaerobic pond were obtained 91.51%, 64.34%, 89.82% 74.99 % 73.34% 71.75%, 68.9% respectively.
Conclusion: The results showed that the ability for phenol and other organic compounds removal in anaerobic pond using petroleum refinery wastewater is higher than the other systems which are expensive and complex.

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MicrosoftInternetExplorer4 Background and Objectives: The presence of chemical dyes in the water resources not only pollutes them, but also brings about death of organisms and serious indemnities to the environment through stopping oxygen production and preventing penetration of the sunlight. In this study, we investigated the efficiency of the electrolysis process for decolonization of phenolphthalein and phenol red from aqueous environment.
Materials and Methods: The experiments were conducted in an electrochemical reactor having a working volume of 1 liter equipped with 2 graphite electrodes. This study was conducted at laboratory scale. Samples were prepared by dissolving two phenol red and phenolphthalein dyes in drinking water. Then, the effect of operating parameters such as voltage, inter-electrode distance, and NaCl concentration on the complete dye removal was determined considering optimum retention time using  Factorial variance analyses and the graphs were plotted using MS Excel software.
Results: the results showed that the optimum conditions for completely removal of phenolphthalein was achieved applying a voltage of 48 V, the retention time of 9 minutes, 5 cm inter-electrode distance, and the salt concentration of 1.5 g/l, whereas, complete removal of phenol red was achieved applying a voltage of 48 V, the retention time of 8 minutes, 5 cm inter-electrode distance, and the salt concentration of 2 g/l. Under these conditions, COD removal efficiency for phenol red and phenolphthalein was 85 and 80 percent respectively.
Conclusion: This study revealed that electrolysis process is an effective method to remove both phenolphthalein and phenol red dyes from effluent, because it can completely remove the dyes in a short time.

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MicrosoftInternetExplorer4 Background and Objectives: Phenol is one of the most important organic chemicals presenting in water and other environments. It not only brings about hygienic problems but also results in forming 11 toxic priority pollutants in aqueous environments. Hence, the performance of electrocoagulation process using iron and aluminum sacrificial anodes was investigated for removal of phenol.
Materials and Methods: We used a glass tank in 1.56 L volume (effective volume 1 L) equipped with four iron and aluminum plate electrodes to do experiments (bipolar mode). The tank was filled with synthetic wastewater containing phenol in concentration of 5, 20, 40, and 70 mg/l and to follow the progress of the treatment, each sample was taken at 20 min intervals for up to 80 min. The percent of phenol removal was measured at pH 3, 5, 7, and 9 electrical potential range of 20, 40, and 60 volts and electrical conductivity of 1000, 1500, 2000, and 3000 µs/cm.
Results: It was found that the most effective removal capacities of phenol (95 and 98 %) could be achieved when the pH was kept 7 and 5 for iron and aluminum electrodes, reaction time  80 min, electrical conductivity 3000 µs/cm, initial concentration of phenol 5 mg/l, and electrical potential in the range of 20-60 V.
Conclusion: The method was found to be highly efficient and relatively fast compared with existing conventional techniques and also it can be concluded that the electrochemical process has the potential to be utilized for the cost-effective removal of phenol from water and wastewater.

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Background and objectives: Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine disrupting chemical that releases to the environment through effluents of its producing factory, pulp and paper mill factories, and plastics industry. The purpose of this study was to investigate adsorption isotherms of removing BPA from aqueous solutions using single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). Materials and methods: This study was an empirical investigation. Our experiments were conducted discontinuously using 50 mL of sample in each test. The variables of this study were the contact time (5, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120 min), the initial concentration of BPA (2, 5 , 20, 50 mg/L), and pH (3, 5, 6, 9, 11). The concentrations of BPA were measured using UV-Vis spectrophotometer. Results: The maximum adsorption capacity was found to be 71.42 mg/g. The results of our experiments showed that maximum adsorption capacity at equilibrium was achieved at t = 60 min and pH = 9. Moreover, increasing the initial concentration is associated with an increase in adsorption capacity until it becomes constant. Conclusion: The BPA adsorption on SWCNT follows Freundlich-Langmuir isotherm.

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Background and Objectives: bisphenol A and nonylphenol are xenoestrogen materials used as a monomer of plastics in widely volume in the production of plastic materials especially mineral water bottles and disposable plastic containers. In this study, we investigated the potential of migration of bisphenol A and nonylphenol from disposable plastic containers into water at different temperatures and also from mineral water into water at different temperatures. Materials and Methods: We conducted bisphenol A and nonylphenol extraction from each sample through liquid-liquid extraction. For identification and quantitative determination of bisphnol A and nonylphenol, we used gas chromatography equipped with mass detector, and for quantitative determination of these two compounds, we used high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with fluorescence detector. Results: We found that increasing temperature increased significantly the rate of migration of these two compounds in the water. Moreover, it was revealed that only the presence of bisphenol A in water of mineral water bottles was detected and the increase in temperature also increases the rate of migration bisphenol A into water. Conclusion: In general, results of this study showed that improper storage of mineral water bottles and also use of disposable plastic containers for hot drinks would result in increasing consumer exposure to these compounds.

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Background and Objective: Various industries such as petrochemical, oil refinery, pharmaceutical, plastics, paper, steel and, resin produce a substantial of phenol and its derivatives. Wastewaters containing phenol need careful treatment before discharging into the environment due to their poor biodegradability and high toxicity. The objective of this study was to remove phenol by multiwall carbon nanotubes from aqueous solution. Materials and Methods: Adsorption process was implemented in a laboratory-scale batch with emphasis on the effect of various parameters such as contact time (5 to 120 minutes), pH (3- 11), initial concentration of phenol (5 - 50 mg/l) and the sulfate and chloride ions (20 - 200 mg/l) on adsorption process. To achieve a better realization of adsorption process, sorption kinetics and equilibrium isotherms were also determined. Results: The results indicated that maximum adsorption capacity occurred at concentration 50 mg/L and t =30 minutes. The uptake fluctuated very little in the pH range of 3–9, and at greater than 9 the absorption decreased suddenly. Moreover, the presence of sulfate and chloride ions had no effect on the process. It was found that adsorption kinetics and equilibrium data follow a pseudo-second-order kinetics model and a Freundlich isotherm model respectively. Conclusion: It is concluded that carbon nanotubes being effective in a wide range of pH, short time to reach equilibrium and the absence of competing ions on the absorption process can be used effectively in removing phenol from aqueous solution.

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Background and Objectives: Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is an organic compound and phenolic derivatives categorized as priority pollutants that have harmful effects on humans, animals, and plants in low concentrations. Therefore, PCP removal from water and wastewater is very important. The aim of this study was to assess the efficiency of A. niger fungus biomass in PCP absorption. Materials and Methods: This was an experimental study in which different steps of the experiments were performed. A. niger strain was prepared from Persian Type Culture Collection of Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST). After activation in potato dextrose agar (PDA) culture plates, fungi were incubated for 7 to 10 days at 25 °C. The prepared A. niger biomass was modified by NaOH and then it was used for PCP absorption assay. The concentration of PCP was measured using high-performance liquid chromatography. Results: The findings of present study showed that contact time is an important and effective factor in the PCP absorption rate. Two hours was selected as the optimum retention time in this experiment and after that the removal percentage did not raise significantly. The results of PCP absorption in different pH demonstrated that the adsorption efficiency decreases by rising pH and initial PCP concentration. The effects of contact time, pH and initial PCP concentration on the absorption process was significant (P-value <0.001). Conclusion: The results show that absorption efficiency increases by rising retention time under constant conditions. In addition, at low pH the modified A. niger biomass could be a good absorber for PCP.

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Background and Objective: Phenol presence in water and wastewater is interesting because of its stability in environment and health problems. Therefore, it must be removed for water pollution prevention. The aim of this study was to evaluate phenol adsorption from aqueous solutions using walnut green hull. Materials and Methods: This was an experimental study in which walnut green hull was used as biosorbent with a range of mesh 40. In this study, stock solution of phenol was prepared and effects of effective parameters such as pH (4,6,8, and10), contact time (3-60 min), adsorbent dosage (0.25-5 g/L), and initial phenol concentration (10,20,40, and 50 mg/L) on adsorption process were evaluated. Moreover results were evaluated using Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms and first order and pseudo-second order kinetics. All experiments were conducted in double and the mean adsorption rate was reported. Results: The maximum adsorption capacity of 30.30 mg/g corresponded with Langmuir model. Kinetic evaluation indicated that the adsorption of phenol by the walnut green hull clearly followed the pseudo-second order reaction. It was found that increasing contact time and adsorbent dosage would lead to increasing of adsorption of phenol and increasing pH and initial phenol concentration lead to decreasing of phenol adsorption. Maximum phenol removal was achieved at pH 4, with more than 99.9 % efficiency. Conclusion: The results of this study show that the walnut green hull can be used effectively in phenol removal, because walnut green hull is agriculture waste and is produced annual in high volume hence, it can be used as adsorbent in phenol removal from wastewater.

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Background and Objective: Electrochemical methods as one of the advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), have been applied effectively to degrade recalcitrant organics in aqueous solutions. In the present work, the performance of electro-Fenton (EF) method using iron electrodes on the degradation of phenol was studied. Materials and Methods: In this study, a lab-scale EF batch reactor equipped with four electrodes and a DC power supply was used for removing phenol. The effect of operating parameters such as pH, voltage, H₂O₂ and initial phenol concentration and operating time were evaluated. We added H₂O₂ manually to the reactor while iron anode electrode was applied as a ferrous ion source. Results: It was found that initial pH of the solution, initial H₂O₂ concentration, applied voltages were highly effective on the phenol removal efficiency in this process, so that 87% of phenol after 15 min of reaction at pH=3.0, voltage 26 V and H₂O₂ 100 mg/L was removed. Phenol removal efficiency decreased with increasing pH, so that at pH 10, after 15 min, efficiency was 11%. To remove 99.99% phenol at pH 3, 100 mg/L concentration of H₂O₂ and voltage 26 V for 60 min was required. Conclusion: Electro-Fenton process using iron electrodes for phenol degradation and remediation of wastewater could be a promising process.

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Background and Objectives: Phenol is one of priority pollutants produced through leather, paint, resin, and pharmaceutical industries and it can contaminate groundwater after entering to the environment. Hence, it is necessary to use a suitable method for its removal. The aim of this study was synthesize and efficiency evaluation of magnetic nanocomposite of activated carbon powder-zero valent iron/silver (PAC-Fe^o/Ag) in the removal of phenol from aqueous solution. Material & Methods: Reduction method was used for converting bivalent iron to zero valent iron and co-precipitation method for depositing of iron on activated carbon. For coating silver on nano zero valent iron, rapid mixing at high temperature was used. The adsorbent was characterized using SEM, TEM, and XRD techniques. Then, the impact of pH, contact time, agitation speed, temperature, adsorbent, and initial phenol concentration were evaluated and optimized by one factor at the time method. Reaction kinetics and isotherms were also determined. Results: It was found that PAC-Fe^o/Ag has cubic and intertwined structure and has a diameter in the range from 40 to 100 nm. The optimum conditions for phenol removal by PAC-Fe^o/Ag were as pH=3, 90 min contact time, 200 rpm agitating speed and adsorbent concentration equal to 1 g/l. Isotherm and kinetic equations showed that the experimental data of phenol adsorption onto PAC-Fe^o/Ag are correlated to the Langmuir (R²>0.969) and pseudo-second order (R²<0.965) models, respectively. Conclusion: Under optimum conditions, modified adsorbent by zero valent iron and silver with maximum efficiency of 97% has quickly and effectively ability in removal of phenol and it can be easily separated from the solution sample by magnet because of its magnetic properties.

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Background and Objectives: alkylphenol poly ethoxylates (APnEOs) and their metabolites enter environment through discharging wastewater and are of particular concern due to their persistence, toxicity to aquatic organisms, and a potential endocrine disruptor. In this work, we focused on the determination of nonylphenol (NP) and nonylphenol polyethoxylate (NPnEOs) in sediment samples collected from Karun River, Khoozestan Plain, Iran. Materials and Methods: Sample collection of Karun River sediment was carried out on rainy and dry seasons from 10 hydrometric stations. The sediment samples were prepared and extracted using solid phase extraction procedure and were analyzed using HPLC-FLD. Results: We found that NP and NPnEOs concentrations in sediment samples of Karun River were 0.21-2.43 and 0.18-0.91 µg/g respectively. This study revealed that NP concentration in sediment samples of Karun River was higher than the other alkyphenolic metabolites. Conclusion: The results indicated accumulation of endocrine disrupting contaminants (EDCs) in the Karun river sediments. The results showed significant difference between mean concentrations of these compounds in the upstream and downstream stations of Ahwaz Megacity (p-value<0.05).

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Background and Objectives: Phenol is one of the industrial pollutants in wastewaters, which due to its toxicity for biological systems various pretreatment processes have been used for its detoxification. In this study, the combination of catalytic ozonation process (COP) and sequencing batch reactor (SBR) were used for detoxification of these types of wastewaters.

Materials and Methodology: In this study, the effect of COP on phenol degradation, COD removal, and detoxification of wastewater was investigated. To determine the acute toxicity of effluents and identification of intermediate compounds produced in COP, bioassay using Daphnia Magna and GC / MS were used, respectively. Then, phenol and COD removal of pretreated wastewater was investigated in SBR.

Results: It was found that under optimal conditions in COP (time = 60 min), the concentrations of phenol and COD reduced from 500 and 1162 to 7.5 and 351 mg/L respectively and pretreated effluent toxicity (TU = 36), after rising in the initial stage of reaction, effectively reduced at the end of process (TU=2.3). the integration of this process with SBR could decreased the COD and phenol concentration less than the detectable range by HPLC. 

Conclusion: Results showed that COP has a high effect on biodegradability, detoxification, and mineralization of phenol and combination of COP with SBR process can effectively treat wastewaters containing phenol.

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Background and Objectives: Phenol is a toxic and persistent substance in the environment. The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of silica aerogel synthesized using sodium silicate in the adsorption of phenol from aqueous solutions.

Material and Method: Silica aerogel was prepared by Sol-Gel process. The influence of effective variables such contact time, initial pH of the solution, adsorbent dose, and initial phenol concentration on the adsorption efficiency was investigated. The characterization of prepared silica aerogel and confirmation of phenol adsorption was determined through SEM, XRD analysis and NMR, FTIR spectra respectively. The adsorption data was evaluated via Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms and pseudo-first and pseudo-second-order kinetics.

Results: This research found that the phenol adsorption efficiency increased by increasing pH from 3 to 11, so that after 60 min, the absorption efficiency at the 100 mg/L initial phenol concentration and 0.5 g adsorbent obtained 84 and 96.4 % at pH 3 and 11, respectively. The SEM image and XRD patternof synthesized silica aerogel confirmed the creation of porous and amorphous structure. After the phenol absorption, the NMR and FTIR spectra of silica aerogel, confirmed the creation of new bands because of phenol molecule at the adsorbent structure. The absorption of phenol was compatible with Freundlich isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetic. The maximum absorption capacity (q_m) obtained was 47.39 mg/g.

Conclusion: Silica aerogel as an adsorbent, due to special characteristics in the structure and usage, can be a promising treatment process for adsorption of toxic and persistent substances.

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Background and Objective: Main sources of 4-chlorophenol wastewater are petroleum industry, coal, paper and resin production. The aim of this study was to compare the performance of raw and cationic surfactant modified nanoclay in removal of 4-chlorophenol from aqueous solutions.
Materials and Methods: The influence of contact time, initial pH of solution, adsorbent dosage and 4-chlorophenol concentration as effective parameters in adsorption process and the influence of modification solution pH and surfactant loading rates were investigated. The modified nanoclay was characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectroscopy. Finally, the isotherm and adsorption kinetics were investigated.
Results: The removal efficiency of 4-chlorophenol was increased by increasing the initial pH from 3 to 11, so that after of 120 min, the absorption efficiency at an initial 4-chlorophenol concentration of 100 mg/L and 0.25 g adsorbate was 26 and 95.5 % at pH 3 and 11, respectively. Under the same conditions the removal efficiency for the raw nanoclay was 2 and 9% at pH 3 and 11, respectively. The FTIR and XRD analyses revealed that the nanoclay structural changed from hydrophilic to hydrophobic and the interlayer spacing was increased. The adsorption of 4-chlorophenol on raw and modified nanoclay was consistent with Langmuir and pseudo-second-order kinetics. The maximum absorption capacity of raw and modified nanoclay was 0.5 and 25.77 mg/g, respectively
Conclusion: The modification of nanoclay with cationic surfactant increased the adsorption efficiency of 4-chlorophenol.

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