Iranian Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine

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One of the oldest codes - Hammurabi's Code - available in the field of medicine contains descriptions of the duties of physicians and heavy penalties for their neglect. Albeit, religious books have pointed out these issues as needed. Among these, the text of Avesta pays particular attention to physicians and their duties, and was one of the sources of inspiration for medical laws at its time. In the text, it is stated that physicians were selected from members of the clergy, and surgeons had to perform three surgeries on non-Zoroastrians who believed in Ahura Mazda. If this requirement was not achieved, they would lose their right to surgery or practice, but if successful, they could operate on the followers of Ahura Mazda without fear. Here we intend to discuss the laws and ethics of ancient Iran and the rights and duties of the physicians by exploring the literature of the time.

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Cloning, especially human cloning, is the latest technology of the present time and has become known as "the debate of the century". Since its appearance, the technique has created global concern for scholars. The physical injury ensuing from the manipulation of women ovaries, nucleus and embryo, potential mental and spiritual harm, incurable disease and early aging are among concerns in this regard which necessitate research and investigation. Providing a precise philosophical framework to alleviate these concerns and end the battle between scholars of natural sciences and humanities over this technology calls for more research and investigation with a deep and philosophical view.In the present manuscript titled "Human cloning technology with a view to Kant's anthropology", first philosophical thoughts and ideas of Kant about human beings are reviewed, his anthropologic thoughts and ideas were analyzed. Finally we conclude that human cloning conflicts with Kant's accounts in anthropology because according to Kant, humans have cognition, free will, and self-discipline, and they have the right to human dignity. According to Kant's anthropology, human cloning technology, whether for therapy or reproduction, should be declared illegal.

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In the middle age (500–1500), while European countries were struggling with frightening epidemics such as plague, smallpox, tuberculoses, leprosy, and their medical treatments were based on superstitions and fanaticism, scientists such as Avicenna and Rhazes laid the foundation of the golden period in medicine. In the late periods of golden centuries, during the Mogul invasion of Iran, Rashidaddin Fazlollah Hamadani devoted a great deal of effort to preserve the knowledge by foundation of the knowledge city of Rabé Rashidi and Daralshafa (Medical and Health Service College) in Tabriz. Rashidaddin established a successful health management system which was accordance with the current modern health management systems. The objective of this review is to present a clear perspective of a successful Iranian Islamic model of health delivery system 700 years ago. The review was conducted in the form of descriptive bases of original documents with a systemic approach. Findings show a successful management experience in health system in terms of stewardship, resource allocation, provision of health services and financing which appears to be in accordance with the World Health Organization (WHO) declaration in 2000. Promotion of team working, employment of fulltime and part-time physicians, implementation of a fair and functional economic structure, health economic, sustainable financial mechanisms, public insurance, home care provision, and isolation of communicable diseases in hospitals can be considered as examples of a successful Iranian Islamic health management system. It can be concluded that as Iranian health management system is faced with many different challenges, gleaning lessons from successful national historical experiences can play a key role in the establishment of a competent system based on our Islamic and national values and in accordance with modern scientific achievements.

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In this paper, the author aims to study orthodox and protestant points of views on human cloning and investigate on their arguments for and against it. Both ideologies have abolished both reproductive and therapeutic cloning and put forward an argument against them. The only liberal view which allows therapeutic cloning, but refrains from explicitly commenting on reproductive cloning, is a cult of protestant religion. It can be concluded that although reproductive human cloning can't be prohibited by account of their reasons, therapeutic cloning can be forbade by the reason of protecting the life right. This perspective shows that there is a fundamental consistency in Christianity's teaching about both kinds of cloning, because this religion prohibited all sorts of it.

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Generally, when moral values and ethical principles are concerned, human beings are considered as the sole subject of these fields. It is then concluded that the only living creatures with some privileges and obligation towards their own bodies and also, towards their other human counterparts are humans. An emerging issue, particularly in the past recent three decades, has been the expansion of the ethical community to be inclusive of other living creatures, namely animals. Novel branches of science such as animal ethic are increasingly challenging the traditional view of ethics and aim to include animals in ethical community. In this article, a descriptive study and systematic review of literate was carried out on different aspects of animal ethics and the specific codes applicable to animals was studied in order to shed some light on the animal ethics and on what basis they are subjects to ethical considerations. As animals are proven to have the ability of perception and demonstrated to be able to feel and differentiate good and bad experiences, they are considered as being the subject of ethical considerations. Therefore, human beings should be responsible for their behavior towards animals in different aspects.

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Medical ethics is a set of moral values that apply principles and responsibilities to the practice of medicine and is a fundamental part of medical education. The current study investigated the effectiveness of the medical ethics curriculum and the best method for its implementation from interns’ point of view. The current cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out in July 2012. The research tool was a questionnaire developed in the medical ethics department and handed to all interns. The validity and reliability of the tool was confirmed using content validity and internal consistency (α= 0.72) methods respectively. Data was analyzed using SPSS software and reported by the use of descriptive statistics, particularly mode, as a measure of central tendency.Seventy-one interns (60%) responded to the questionnaire, 54% of whom were female and 55% in the second internship year. In response to the achievement rate of expected outcomes such as the extent to which the educational objectives have been reached, and the suitability of content with the needs felt in real clinical situations, modes were all ranked in the ategory of "low". The modes of the responses to the stressfulness of different ethical situations were mainly ranked in the category of "high". To assess the best methods for teaching knowledge as well as medical ethics skills and attitudes, the following were the mode of interns' responses: group discussion (38%) for teaching the basics, and presentation of a case with the solution (70%) for teaching clinical ethics. The most appropriate methods of student evaluation were considered patient management problem and performance evaluation in the ward by 25 (36%) and 21 (31%) of interns respectively.The current study showed the effectiveness of medical ethics curriculum was low and the students requested presenting this course in a more practical way. It would appear that a two unit theoretic course does not have the efficiency to modify students’ attitudes and behavior to encounter challenging ethical situations, and therefore fundamental changes are suggested.

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Ali Afzal Ghate’ Ghazvini was a renowned physician, scholar, and calligrapher of the Safavid era whose personality and efforts in the field of medicine have not been fully recognized thus far. Among his works, three medical treatises can be of use in researching the medicine of the Safavid era. The present article adopts a descriptive-analytic method to introduce one of these treatises, Favaed-al-Afzalieh, and present a survey of its content in addition to the author’s biography. The findings here are based on the three chapters of this medical classic, which indicates the encyclopedic nature of this treatise. Favaed-al-Afzalieh reveals details on a variety of practical medical issues prevalent in the Safavid era, and is considered outstanding due to the volume of all the medical information it contains. The present study discusses the standing of this treatise in the history of medicine along with a suggestion to revise and publish this valuable, comprehensive work and reintroduce it to the world of medicine.

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Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine that is now widely practiced throughout the world. Medical history studies indicate the popularity of aromatherapy in ancient civilizations such as Persia as a method of decontamination and treatment.

The present study uses religious texts, ancient Persian manuscripts in the Pahlavi language, and the history of Persia to confirm the status and application of aromatherapy as a method of treatment in ancient Persian medicine.

In ancient Persia, illness was perceived as a product of evil. Ahriman and Ganak Mainyu were the main causes of diseases, often associated with foul odors and filth. Thus, ancient Persians tried to cure illnesses by using herbs and applying certain principles of hygiene.

Evil, foul odors and stale air were believed to transmit diseases, while ahuric divinities were associated with sweet smells. Therefore, fragrances were used in keeping with the divine forces, and aromatic substances, herbs and woods were employed as a means of prevention to eliminate the causes of illnesses, and as a cure for certain mental and physical diseases.

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The Parthian rule was a major period in the history of Iran that lasted for nearly five centuries and may be investigated from various viewpoints. The lack of resources and cultural works pertaining to this period, however, is what sets it apart from most other eras in the history of Iran.

The Parthian dynasty enjoyed a relatively quiet rule, which indicates it was an advanced civilization with a highly developed system of healthcare. Nevertheless, our knowledge about the medical practices of the Parthian era is rather limited. The purpose of this study was to examine historical sources to shed a light on the attitude of the Parthian society to healthcare, and to explain the lack of resources on the subject.

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Geography and astronomy are among the oldest and most widely practiced sciences that have continued to exist in modern times, and have always been associated with medicine. In astronomy, this association extends to astronomical calendars and the prediction of the most and least favorable occasions for the treatment of diseases. In the geographical context, it includes health and human diseases connected with environmental factors, and has developed with time into what is known today as medical geography.

Najm al-Mulk, the royal astronomer to the court of Naser al-Din Shah, was the first Iranian teacher and author of geography and astronomy in Dar ul-Fonun to promote these sciences, and was responsible for writing the traditional calendar. The aim of this study was to examine the evolution of geography and astronomy during the Qajar era. For this purpose, we investigated astronomical calendars and historical books, and examined the association of traditional medicine with geography and astronomy while inspecting the role of Najm al-Mulk in the process.

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Women are the epitome of affection and are therefore suited for the caregiver role by nature. In Prophet Muhammad’s era, women entered one of the toughest and perhaps most masculine areas of social life, that is, the battlefield. Prophet Muhammad permitted and endorsed the presence of women in battles, and appointed troops of women to accompany him to war for the purpose of providing nursing and medical care. The importance of this issue lies in recognition of the role of Muslim women in social arenas such as battlefields. This study aims to: a) investigate the medical role and performance of women during wartime in Prophet Muhammad’s era, and b) describe the medical function of women in the Prophet’s battles while introducing some who have been active in this domain.

This was an analytic/descriptive study conducted by collecting note cards from library resources. Our findings showed that women had a significant presence in battles during the early stages of Islam, and as historical evidence confirms, they appeared in the caregiver role by the permission of Prophet Muhammad. Moreover, women’s presence was not due to a shortage of men in the battlefield, but rather because of their abilities in the field of medicine and healthcare, where they succeeded in offering a remarkable performance.

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One major problem that continued to threaten the Iranian society well into early twentieth century was the spread of epidemics and infectious diseases. Even though the Iranian civilization had been around for centuries, deaths resulting from such diseases caused the population to stay at approximately six million. Qajar kings and rulers were the first to attempt to control epidemic diseases by utilizing modern methods such as vaccination.

In 1919, Prince Firuz Mirza Nusrat al-Dawla was elected as head of the Iranian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference. A member of this delegation and the ruler's personal physician was Dr. Mohammad Khan, who introduced Firuz Mirza to the Pasteur Institute upon arriving in Paris. Firuz Mirza was impressed by the activities of the Institute and decided to establish a similar institution in Iran.

Findings of the present study show that the establishment of this institution resulted in measures that, along with other activities initiated by the government in the field of public health, controlled the spread of many infectious diseases in Iran.

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The invasion of Iran by Mongols in 1217 AD had a profound impact on different aspects of social life, in which some aspects still exist and are undeniable.

One of these aspects is Mongol’s folk medicine. A review of Iranian folk medicine in Qajar period shows how medicine in this period which was a mixture of oral culture and religious beliefs was influenced by Mongol’s folk medicine.

By comparing Mongol’s medicine and Iranian traditional medicine in Qajar period, this article elaborates on how Iranian traditional medicine was influenced by Mongols

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Archaeological evidence and various historical documents indicate that Chinese were aware of the lands beyond the mountains of the West, especially Iran. This article argues that Iranians had a great role in transferring Iranian religions as well as some other religions such as Christianity to China. As such, the transfer of medical knowledge had had occurred along with transferring those religions and beliefs.

As it is the case now, in the past, business relationship between countries and different ethnic groups played a great role in knowledge transfer between nations. By reviewing the existing historical documents, library resources and archaeological findings, show that the extensive trade exchanges between Iran and China, lead to not only cultural exchange and religious beliefs but also the transfer of medical beliefs, knowledge and practices to China. This happened by the Iranian religious envoys as well as non-Iranian religious missionaries. In conclusion, this knowledge and technology transfer had an impact on the flourishing Chinese medicine.

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