Iranian Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine

Any contract in the Iranian legal system contains features that need to be explained in order to better understand the exact terms of agreement. Some such features are related to whether the contract is irrevocable or voidable, gratuitous or with considerations, and may bear upon accountability and suspension, formality or contentment, and so on. In surrogacy, the sperm and egg of an infertile couple are fertilized and then transferred to another woman's uterus to carry till birth, when the child is delivered to the owners of the sperm and egg. The specific features and uncertain nature of surrogacy specify the standing of this type of contract among others. The present article is aimed to examine the features of surrogacy agreements from ethical and legal perspectives

Nursing theories have their roots in philosophical schools, and acceptance of a school of philosophy can direct the theoretical and clinical activities of a nurse.The present paper used a qualitative and explanatory-applied method. After a review of the general features of post-structuralism and post-structuralist ethics, the challenges and opportunities of post-structuralism in nursing and nursing codes of ethics were discussed.Ethics is one of the areas of nursing that have been affected by the arrival of post-structuralism. Ethics in post-structuralism is nomadic, based on discourse, democratic, relative, rhizomatic and anti-authoritarian.Despite the positive outcomes of post-structuralism in nursing, some features of this philosophical school presents challenges to nursing ethics. Some of these challenges that are in contrast with nursing codes of ethics are the relativism in ethics, anti-authoritarianism, rejection of hierarchy, representation and paternalism.

Axiology is an important topic of discussion in philosophical schools that deals with aesthetics and ethics. Axiology is related to ethics in its general sense and professional ethics in specific. Today, moral systems are seeking to answer man’s needs in various areas including professional ethics for psychotherapists. In this article, we have examined the axiology of illuminationism as the basis of our view and a major Islamic philosophy in order to draw from it the principles and methods of professional ethics for psychologists and psychotherapists. Sohrawardi, the founder of illuminationism, has offered certain instructions for the purification of ego. The aim of this article is to extract from this axiological system some implications that would be beneficial to psychotherapists. The method used in this research is descriptive-interpretive. Capacity, honesty, justice, benevolence, trustworthiness, commitment, respect for human dignity and secrecy are among the ethical principles of Illuminationism, and if psychotherapists can apply these values, their treatments and therapies will be more effective.

Eugenics or the science of breeding humans is a movement based on biological concepts that advocate policies for improvement of the human population genetics. It has also served as a determinant factor and reference in many social disciplines including law and punishment during certain periods in history. In fact, based on eugenic policies, which were affirmed by biologists, health experts and physicians, many people were sentenced to elimination from the society’s gene pool and thereby underwent sexual sterilization. Such practices were approved by economists and jurists involved in the executive affairs of many countries as well. Publication of two separate journals about eugenics and the corresponding empirical data confirming the influence of genetics on behaviors along with the solidity of eugenics-related policies demonstrate the scientific significance of this movement in its heyday. This public legitimacy started to decline, however, after sterilization of tens of thousands of mentally or physically handicapped people by Nazi Germany and the ascending criticism on moral and scientific bases of eugenics, which almost led to the exclusion of the subject in public. In this essay, eugenic concepts, relevant policies and its legitimacy throughout history are discussed to provide a better outlook for adopting more effective strategies in public health policymaking

In the modern world, reproductive right is considered among the basic human rights in countries such as America and Britain. There has been growing interest in the subject and its various aspects including contraception and assisted reproductive technologies, which are giving rise to the ongoing debates. National and international legislators, governments and religions are striving to resolve the controversy among individuals and between individuals and governments and devise the perfect legislation that will cover all aspects of the subject and control all activities in this area.In the realm of bioethics and law, the issue is introduced as a right not duty, while in Christianity and Judaism it falls under the category of duty. In Islam, on the other hand, childbearing decision-making is left to the couple, which highlights the teachings of Islam regarding reproduction. In this paper, we attempted to offer a comparative study of four different points of view regarding the issue of reproductive rights

The precepts of Islamic education are founded on a practical and all-inclusive system that is aimed to develop man in all aspects of his life based on Quranic guidance (Quran and Ravayat). The individual is at the heart of Islamic education, and therefore has a specific place in Islam and is considered sacred and blessed.As a rule, medicine is targeted at the physical wellbeing of man. Consequently, Islamic education can play can play an important role in medical training and may be traced in the Quran and Revayat.Instructors and students are at the core of education and learning, and their development will result in the moral, spiritual and technical advancement of the society. Medical schools aim to cultivate young talents and educate experts in the health industry, and are naturally essential for the development of a nation. This can be achieved through the attempts of capable and motivated instructors within the educational system.The present study is a review of the Islamic approach to medical training and the techniques of developing motivated and capable scholars and students in order to achieve Islamic educational goals.

Virtue ethics is an agent-centered approach that is concerned with good and bad character rather than right or wrong action. It is based on the virtues and moral character of the agent. Morality of the physician is emphasized in medicine as well, which demonstrates its affinity with virtue ethics. Nevertheless, a theory of applied or medical ethics should provide a criterion for ethical decision making by instructing what should be done, something which, according to some philosophers, is incompatible with virtue ethics. This article aimed to demonstrate how virtue ethics can offer rules and guidelines by resorting to the moral agent and emphasizing virtues, and help physicians to make decisions when faced with dilemmas. For this purpose, examples about abortion and selling kidneys for transplantation were provided.Some of the most important advantages of virtue ethics include: context-dependence and attention to relevant realities the importance of emotions and the likely motivations of the people involved and finally emphasis on exemplar based on the sensitivity and practical wisdom of the virtuous agent. These advantages cause virtue ethics to be better positioned than other approaches to solving problems in medical ethics.

Nowadays, electronic communications technology propounds new forms of the patient-physician relationship in the field of medicine. Effective communication between the patient and the physician can play a crucial role in the process of treatment. This new form of communication greatly influences promotion of the health system by improving access to inexpensive and fast services regardless of geographic boundaries. In times of crisis, telemedicine plays an important role in delivering health services to deprived areas in a just manner. Usage of communications technology is inevitable, and due to the virtual nature of this kind of medical communication, recognition of certain ethical considerations seems essential. Successful examples of telemedicine are abundant throughout the world and usage of this technology is a helping solution for inadequacies in the healthcare system. In Iran, because of the geographical extent of the country, this technology can provide access to medical services in some cases.In order to achieve the best outcome in telemedicine, it is essential to respect confidentiality, privacy, informed consent and commitment to professionalism in this field.

During their professional life, physicians may face demands for procedures that do not entail significant medical benefits for the applicants, but rather originate from cultural and common considerations of the society. In such cases, physicians are sometimes forced to ignore cultural concerns in order to fulfill their ethical and professional responsibilities and provide healthcare services based on patients’ interests and beneficence. This can create ethical challenges and lead to physicians’ inability to act on their patients’ requests. One case in point is the request for hymenorrhaphy.In this article, we aimed to discuss the different opinions, ethical considerations and legal issues concerning hymenorrhaphy, and to investigate the Islamic aspects of the problem. In view of all existing debates and considerations, it appears that the reconstruction of hymen is an ethical and professional measure in certain situations.

According to the principle of respect for autonomy, which is one of the essential precepts of medical ethics, patients are entitled to the right of self-determination for a hypothetical future when they may lose the decision-making capacity. Thus, when still adequately competent to make decisions, a person can prepare a document and predict their therapeutic options and state their wishes for the possible time of lack of decision making capacity, or assign a surrogate who will make the best decision considering the attitudes and interests of the patient. This document, called advance directive, has advantages and disadvantages, and has been investigated from different perspectives. The present study addresses this new issue through non-systematic internet and library review of resources, and aims to investigate some aspects of this subject and examine the possibility of its naturalization from certain viewpoints, particularly from the Islamic perspective. In Islam, life is highly respected and physicians are obliged to do their best to protect human life. In cases where patients refuse the suggested treatments, even when it harms them fundamentally, the physician is obliged to respect their wishes for several reasons. Nevertheless, physicians should avoid any direct measure that may end up in the patient’s death. As regards advance directives, the patient no longer has the capacity to make decisions and has done so formerly, which may be in conflict with the physician’s responsibility to save the patient’s life under present circumstances. In such cases, despite a preliminary injunction, there is no reason to extend the patient's right to the time of their consciousness. Therefore, based on the religious principles observed in Iran, acting on the patient's previous decisions can only be valid as long as they do not conflict with the physician’s responsibilities. Furthermore, advance directives currently do not have a place in our legal system and the recognition of such documents is contingent upon further studies, including legal and cultural reviews.

Confidentiality has long been protected in criminal law as an important ethical principle. With regard to the issue of sexually transmitted diseases, however, health care providers are faced with certain challenges. On the one hand, it is their obligation and duty to respect patient confidentiality, and on the other hand, the possibility of transmission of infection to sexual partners is a rather significant phenomenon. Therefore, health care providers have a crucial role in terms of the conflict of interests and legal duties with respect to sexually transmitted diseases.Medical mandatory reporting to state authorities accompanied by personally identifiable information of the infected person is another controversial issue in the field of confidentiality, which will be discussed in this article by studying various trends in statutes and precedents. It seems that throughout the world, there are two major trends in this respect: in some states, principles of confidentiality are observed even if the patient is infected by sexually transmitted diseases, unless it is inevitable for the safety of third parties such as sexual partners in a narrow implementation of Acts. States like Iran, France and Thailand are examples of such governments. In some countries, however, partner notification and compulsory notification by personally identifiable information of patients are mandatory for epidemiologic reasons. The United States, Australia and Ukraine are some of the countries that fall within this category. In Iranian legal system, the duty to respect confidentiality is emphasized and partner notification cannot be considered as a legal duty and therefore it is not legally permitted. Merely in emergency condition and under a narrow interpretation of law and by resort to patients informed consent, necessity and explicit law permission, breaching of confidentiality is justified.

Medical laboratory is one of the health service providers that intensely responsible for the life of patient / client. With an increase in the number and variety of laboratory tests in recent years, the role of laboratory science in identifying and assessing the cause of disease has been more recognized. Performing the laboratory tests with the utmost accuracy, precision and speed using up to date methods as well as protecting the rights, integrity and respecting human dignity and also the establishment of priorities and the requisites for quality management systems can have a significant impact on patient satisfaction and quality which are the characteristics of a good medical laboratory. The principle concept of doing good and not doing bad is the essence of every code of medical ethics. Therefore, in laboratory medicine like other areas of medical sciences, there are ethical questions that have become more complex with the development of diagnostic tests. Medical laboratory practitioners usually deal with issues of confidentiality of patient information, as well as issues related to research ethics, professional ethics and business ethics.This study has collected important and common topics of medical ethics in laboratory medicine which leads to increase readers’ and practitioners’ information in this field. It is hoped that such information could be effective and practical to improve the laboratorial services for patients.

In order to improve service quality, there are various committees in hospitals including ethics committees, which may be among the most important and necessary establishments within the health care system. Hospital ethics committees are designed to ensure proper clinical decision-making and are responsible for monitoring the ethical provision of services in hospitals. They also aim to assist patients and health care professionals without interfering in the physician-patient relationship. This article was part of a comprehensive review study performed in 2014 and 2015 by searching database not restricted to any particular period of time. The keywords used to search the sources available in English included “hospital ethics committee”, “healthcare ethics committee”, “clinical ethics committee”, and “institutional ethics committee”. Since ethical counseling is one of the main tasks of hospital ethics committees, their existence in hospitals appears to be essential. There have been few studies on the functions of hospital ethics committees in Iran, and it seems necessary to investigate the activities of these committees in the country. Moreover, it is recommended that the Ministry of Health and Medical Education take more serious actions to establish and monitor ethics committees in hospitals throughout the country.

Human cloning is among the newest and most advanced technologies in the field of medical sciences and genetics, and has been a popular topic of discussion throughout the 21^st century. The success of scientists in the use of this technology on animals has caused great concern for outstanding thinkers of various fields.

Some issues that necessitate research on this subject include: physical injuries caused by manipulation of ovaries, the cell nucleus, and the embryo the possibility of mental and emotional damage, and premature aging potential threats to human will and discretion a violation of human dignity and conflicts with religions and world-views.

A philosophical outlook on these issues can guide the researcher from the surface to the root of the problem and redirect such concerns, and at the same time shed light on the existing disputes between scholars of natural sciences and humanities regarding the cloning technology. This will be especially true if such an outlook is based on a tradition as rich as the Iranian Islamic philosophy. The present article uses analytical library research to investigate the anthropological teachings of Sadraian philosophy from the ontological and epistemological point of view. The article then proceeds to examine the outcomes and consequences of the cloning technology according to this doctrine.

It seems that the anthropological principles embedded in or hidden behind therapeutic or reproductive cloning technology are not in conflict with Sadraian anthropology.

In the Iranian Civil Code, article 190 and the following articles specify a series of conditions that each party of a contract should possess in order to be able to enter into the contract. The above-mentioned article states that in order for a contract to be valid, both parties must be of age, must be in full possession of their senses, and must have reached puberty. In addition to these conditions, the intended parents must meet a number of other criteria as well; for instance, they should be infertile and must be physically and mentally healthy. As regards the surrogate mother, she needs to be married and in good physical and mental health, and she should have previously conceived a child. She must also be of an age suitable for pregnancy, and it needs to be ascertained that she will come to no harm due to pregnancy. These terms, however, are not ordained by the Iranian law and are only observed by some institutions at the moment. Therefore it is recommended that legislators focus on the issue of surrogacy and oversee the observance of the above-mentioned terms by institutions that are involved in the process.

Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine that is now widely practiced throughout the world. Medical history studies indicate the popularity of aromatherapy in ancient civilizations such as Persia as a method of decontamination and treatment.

The present study uses religious texts, ancient Persian manuscripts in the Pahlavi language, and the history of Persia to confirm the status and application of aromatherapy as a method of treatment in ancient Persian medicine.

In ancient Persia, illness was perceived as a product of evil. Ahriman and Ganak Mainyu were the main causes of diseases, often associated with foul odors and filth. Thus, ancient Persians tried to cure illnesses by using herbs and applying certain principles of hygiene.

Evil, foul odors and stale air were believed to transmit diseases, while ahuric divinities were associated with sweet smells. Therefore, fragrances were used in keeping with the divine forces, and aromatic substances, herbs and woods were employed as a means of prevention to eliminate the causes of illnesses, and as a cure for certain mental and physical diseases.

Introduction and Problem Statement:  Attitude Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him and his family) treatment, has several dimensions as follows: ontological, ethical, Juridical and medical. This article studies the mystical and moral attitude of the Prophet Muhammad's treatment of prophetic mysticism a nd moral to explain the nature of treatment.

Methods: this study, used the Quran and prophetic traditions as well as Shia and Sunni interpretations used and documentary - library.

Results: The results show that the Prophet (PBUH and prophet) said treatment is only with God's command. The Prophet of Islam only God knew therapist. Prophet knew doctors who serve with tolerance to the patient. Of course, the prophet  did not know doctors dismiss the treatment but he, presented the doctor through the grace of God. He has said his companions to follow the recommended treatment processes According to this attitude. He believed that God has landed the drug. Also, according to the moral teachings of the Prophet (PBUH and prophet) central task of the treating physician is as follows: the need for specialized doctors, trying to detect treatment, avoid seeking treatment from unlawful activities.

Applications: mystical prophetic teaching about the treatment that "God is revealed for each analgesic drug" is a very important idea that can be used as a methodology proposition, medicine paradigm of the crisis related to the rescue Which can be used as a methodology proposition, fever that save crises related paradigm.

As well as other mystical vision of his heart, can be explain the moral principles of treatment in the healing process with integrated color. Ethical principles in relation to medicine and treatment can also introduce the responsibility of the medical profession as divine responsibility and thus enhance the physician's professional responsibility.

The Parthian rule was a major period in the history of Iran that lasted for nearly five centuries and may be investigated from various viewpoints. The lack of resources and cultural works pertaining to this period, however, is what sets it apart from most other eras in the history of Iran.

The Parthian dynasty enjoyed a relatively quiet rule, which indicates it was an advanced civilization with a highly developed system of healthcare. Nevertheless, our knowledge about the medical practices of the Parthian era is rather limited. The purpose of this study was to examine historical sources to shed a light on the attitude of the Parthian society to healthcare, and to explain the lack of resources on the subject.

Geography and astronomy are among the oldest and most widely practiced sciences that have continued to exist in modern times, and have always been associated with medicine. In astronomy, this association extends to astronomical calendars and the prediction of the most and least favorable occasions for the treatment of diseases. In the geographical context, it includes health and human diseases connected with environmental factors, and has developed with time into what is known today as medical geography.

Najm al-Mulk, the royal astronomer to the court of Naser al-Din Shah, was the first Iranian teacher and author of geography and astronomy in Dar ul-Fonun to promote these sciences, and was responsible for writing the traditional calendar. The aim of this study was to examine the evolution of geography and astronomy during the Qajar era. For this purpose, we investigated astronomical calendars and historical books, and examined the association of traditional medicine with geography and astronomy while inspecting the role of Najm al-Mulk in the process.

Nurses face numerous patients with different cultural backgrounds and needs on a daily basis. Cultural diversity can be an obstacle in the way of providing quality healthcare services. Cultural competency is the proper response to cultural and ethnic diversity in the society. This research was conducted to define the concept of cultural competency in nursing education.

In this study, Persian and English keywords related to cultural competency, nursing education and nursing curriculum were first searched separately and in combination on the internet and in existing literature. Consequently, papers that were more directly related to the topic were chosen and their concepts were extracted. Cultural competency refers to a set of knowledge, views and skills used simultaneously to enable the individual to work efficiently in different cultural conditions. In this study, first cultural competency was defined and then the process of its acquisition, the facilitating factors, barriers and consequences were described.

Considering that in Iran cultural variables are affected by many different factors, it seems necessary to investigate cultural competency in the existing cultural conditions. Moreover, there seems to be a need for comprehensive planning to provide solutions for professors and students in this respect.