Journal of School of Public Health and

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Traffic accidents compromises a large quantity of peoples annually, and is one of the most important causes of death in Iran. Human factors are amongst of the most leading causes of traffic accident mortality and morbidity and this study is conducted to evaluate the Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of drivers regarding driving laws in Tehran. Two hundred and twenty drivers were selected randomly in this cross sectional study. Cluster sampling with 10 participant in each cluster was used for selection of participants. 22 points were defined using a random sample of telephone numbers. Distribution points was such as one point were selected in each zone of municipality zones. Ten consecutive drivers passing the specified point were interviewed by an interviewer and a senior officer of Traffic Control Organization of Tehran was responsible for assessment of practices. Reliability of questionnaire was evaluated using alpha chronbach coefficient and construct validity was assessed by Principal component Analysis method. Chi square and odds ratio (OR) were used for assessment of relation between qualitative variables, when appropriate. Two hundred and twenty drivers were recruited in this study. Suitable Knowledge, Attitude and practice were seen in 67.7, 56.4 and 47.7 percent of respondents respectively. When adjusted using logistic regression analysis, we did not observe any relation between these three variables. There was a significant relation between knowledge and age and also between practice and education, marital status, occupation and type of automobile. We conclude that practice of drivers of Tehran are weak regarding traffic laws and there is an emergent need for research and intervention in this regard.

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Background and Aim: Agricultural and industrial activities, as well as population growth, have resulted in increases in the amounts of pollutants in the environment, the human body, and other organisms. Cadmium is one of the common heavy metals entering the biological cycles through different paths causing disease in humans, animals and plants. This study aimed at determining cadmium levels and physicochemical and biological factors in water and sediment samples, as well as determining relationships between culturable bacterial counts and cadmium toxicity and assessing bacterial resistance/tolerance spectrum through MIC and MBC.

Materials and Methods: Surface water and sediment samples were taken from five stations in areas believed to be polluted along the Kor River. The stations included 1. Dorudzan Dam outflow, 2. Petrochemistry Bridge, 3. Khan Bridge, 4. Doshakh Bridge, and 5. the mouth of the Kor River to the Bakhtegan Lake. Two sets of samples were taken. Set 1was used for measuring cadmium level, physicochemical and biological factors, while Set 2 was used for the isolation and identification of cadmium resistant/tolerant bacteria and determination of their resistance spectrum. Pure cultures of each bacterial species were prepared and the more resistant bacteria were identified by exposure to media with different cadmium concentrations.

Results: Stations 2 and 3 were found to be significantly more polluted with cadmium than the other 3 stations (p<0.001). The cadmium level in sediments of all the stations was higher than in water (p<0.001) and quite high as compared with the existing standards. The data also showed a lower BOD/COD ratio in the last 2 stations and higher phosphate levels in the last 4 stations. As compared to control, the bacterial count decreased in the presence of 1 mM cadmium chloride solution (p<0.001). Cadmium-resistant bacterial counts were higher in stations 3 and 5 than in the others (p<0.001). The most cadmium-resistant/tolerant bacteria were P. aeruginosa ETs and Bacillus ABs with MIC 6 and 4 and MBC 7 and 5 mM, respectively. The most resistant bacteria were gram-negative, isolated from the sediments.

Conclusion: Cadmium pollution, especially in stations 2 and 3, are due to man's activities. Although many bacterial types were found to be sensitive to cadmium in this study, some of them showed resistance/tolerance to it to different extents. Our findings also show that unlike water, which is an unstable environment, sediments are stable and provide a suitable environment for bacteria to form biofilms as a way to reduce cadmium accumulation. The most resistant bacteria were found in the stations with the highest cadmium concentrations. This may be a result of cadmium-resistant gene expression in the presence of this heavy metal. The use of these resistant strains in biofilters and wastewater bioremediation can potentially help to reduce cadmium pollution, a problem in some rivers.

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Background and Aim: In social marketing, the common techniques of commercial marketing are used to increase the chances of acceptability of an idea or action by the target group. In this study, we determined the impact of an intervention based on social marketing to reduce risky driving behaviors among taxi drivers in Tehran.

Materials and Methods: This was a quasi-experimental study, consisting of a quantitative and a qualitative part, on taxi-drivers in 2 regions (an intervention and a control groups) in the City of Tehran. Based on a formative research approach, the components of social marketing, namely, the product (reminder message for concentrating on avoidance of two target behaviors, tailgating and not driving between lines), price, place and promotion were determined. An 8-week educational program was implemented, the components being installation of stickers before the driver's eyes, distributing a pamphlet, and transferring messages through taxi route supervisors as opinion leaders. After six weeks, risky driving behaviors were assessed by checklists and compared.

Results: The intervention resulted in statistically significant reductions in the two target behaviors in the intervention group as compared with the control group. Furthermore, logistic regression showed that the odds ratio for avoiding both behaviors increased significantly in the intervention group. 

Conclusion: Determining specific target groups, designing interventions based on actual needs and wants of the target group, and focusing on the factors influencing the behavior market are the basic elements of social marketing. Due consideration of these elements when designing behavioral interventions would lead to reductions in risky driving behaviors.

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Background and Aim: The objective of this study was to determine the contents of heavy metals Hg, Cd and Pb in the muscle, liver and gill tissues of Liza abu fish in the Dez and Bahmanshir Rivers in Khoozestan Province, Iran in winter 2010. 

Materials and Methods: The study included 108 samples of Liza abu tissues. The metals were extracted from the tissues using the wet-digestion method and their concentrations were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer Perkin Elmer 4100. Analysis of the data was done using the SPSS17 software, the statistical test being the t-test ((p≤0.05).). 

Results: The highest concentrations (mg/Kg) of Hg (0.029±0.005), Cd (0.506±0.047) and Pb (1.07±0.096) were found in the gill and their lowest concentrations, 0.023±0.001, 0.346±0.040 and 0.903±0.030, respectively, in the muscle. The concentrations of Cd in the gull, muscle and liver were significantly different (p≤0.05) between the Dez and Bahmanshir River fish samples, but the differences with regard to Hg and Pb concentrations were not different between the 2 rivers (p≥0.05). 

Conclusion: The mercury content of Liza abu tissues was lower, while the lead and cadmium contents were higher, than the respective WHO standards (permitted levels).

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  Background and Aim: Motor vehicles are an absolute necessity used extensively in all countries of the world. They are a major cause of air pollution with highly undesirable consequences. Thus, exposure to traffic pollution is a growing public health concern. Several studies indicate that people in the cabin of a vehicle inhale air with high concentrations of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides(NOx), particulate matter (PM), volatile compounds (VOCs) and carbon monoxide (CO).

  Materials and Methods: Eexposure of drivers inside motor vehicles to CO was assessed during one year in Tehran, Iran. For this purpose, the concentration of CO was measured in the breathing zone of 72 male taxi drivers using a portable real-time instrument equipped with electrochemical sensors. In addition, records of fixed air pollution monitoring stations in Tehran were examined and the CO concentration in those records were compared with those measured in the taxis.

  Results: The mean in-vehicle CO concentration was 19.91 ± 4.37ppm, while records of fixed air pollution monitoring stations showed the concentration of this pollutant in the air to be 3.69 ± 1.03ppm.

  Conclusion: It can be concluded that factors such as traffic density, weather conditions and vehicles lifespan affect the extent of exposure of taxi drivers to carbon monoxide.

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Background and Aim: Distracted driving, specifically cell phone use while driving, has been found to be responsible for traffic accidents and road casualties throughout the world annually. The aim of this observational study was to determine the frequency of drivers' engagement in hazardous secondary activities on Mashhad urban roads, particularly cell phone use.
Materials and Methods: This was a 3-month cross-sectional study. Data on drivers’ secondary task management on 17 randomly selected sites and 42 arterial and collector roads were obtained from Mashhad Traffic and Transportation Organization records and analyzed using the Pearson's chi-squared test.
Results: The rate of cell phone use was 5.27%, the most widely observed related task being handheld conversation (3.15%) followed by texting (1.83%) and hands-free use (0.28%). In addition, 1.75% of the drivers were engaged in other risky tasks such as eating, drinking beverages and smoking. Distracted female drivers and drivers aged 26-35 years were significantly more likely to be engaging in cell phone use, while drivers under 26 years old were the dominant group as regards texting. Further analysis of the data showed significant differences between male and female drivers as regards as behaviors while driving.
Conclusion: Based on the findings it is concluded that there are serious problems related to drivers’ secondary activities while driving. Raising public awareness, educational interventions, law enforcement and tougher legislation will certainly minimize deaths due to car accidents, as well as financial and social damage, due to drivers’ distraction, in line with achieving a safe social environment.